STAINLESS & DUPLEX STEEL FASTENERS

<div style="mso-element:para-border-div;border:none;border-bottom:solid #AAAAAA 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt:solid #AAAAAA .5pt;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; text-align: justify; border: none; padding: 0in;"><b><span style="font-size:14.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;color:red">Description Of Stainless Steel<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:16.8pt;background: #F9F9F9"><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi">Stainless steel is used for corrosion-resistant tools Equipments and Products such as Stud Bolts , Hex Bolts , Pipe , Flanges and Fittings.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 6pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 9.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi">Stainless steel does not readily <a href=" title="Corrosion"><span style="color:#0B0080">corrode</span></a>, <a href=" title="Rust"><span style="color:#0B0080">rust</span></a> or stain with water as ordinary steel does. However, it is not fully stain-proof in low-oxygen, high-<a href=" title="Salinity"><span style="color:#0B0080">salinity</span></a>, or poor air-circulation environments. There are different grades and surface finishes of stainless steel to suit the environment the alloy must endure. Stainless steel is used where both the properties of steel and <a href=" title="Corrosion resistance"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none; text-underline:none">corrosion resistance</span></a> are required.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 6pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 9.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi">Stainless steel differs from <a href=" title="Carbon steel"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none; text-underline:none">carbon steel</span></a> by the amount of chromium present. Unprotected carbon steel <a href=" title="Rust"><span style="color:#0B0080">rusts</span></a> readily when exposed to air and moisture. This <a href=" title="Iron oxide"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">iron oxide</span></a> film (the rust) is active and accelerates corrosion by forming more iron oxide; and, because of the greater volume of the iron oxide, this tends to flake and fall away. Stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to form a <a href=" title="Passivation (chemistry)"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration: none;text-underline:none">passive</span></a> film of <a href=" title="Chromium(III) oxide"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none; text-underline:none">chromium oxide</span></a>, which prevents further surface corrosion by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and blocks corrosion from spreading into the metal's internal structure.  Passivation occurs only if the proportion of chromium is high enough and oxygen is present.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <div style="mso-element:para-border-div;border:none;border-bottom:solid #AAAAAA 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt:solid #AAAAAA .5pt;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; text-align: justify; border: none; padding: 0in;"><span style="font-size: 9pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Properties<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; text-align: justify; border: none; padding: 0in;"><span style="font-size: 9pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"> </span></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.05in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: 9pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"> </span></b></p> <div style="mso-element:para-border-div;border:none;border-bottom:solid #AAAAAA 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt:solid #AAAAAA .5pt;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; text-align: justify; border: none; padding: 0in;"><b><span style="font-size:14.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;color:red">Oxidation<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 6pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 9.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi">High oxidation resistance in <a href=" title="Earth's atmosphere"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none; text-underline:none">air</span></a> at ambient <a href=" title="Temperature"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">temperature</span></a> is normally achieved with additions of a minimum of 13% (by weight) <a href=" title="Chromium"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">chromium</span></a>, and up to 26% is used for harsh environments. The chromium forms a Passivation layer of <a href=" title="Chromium(III) oxide"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none; text-underline:none">chromium(III) oxide</span></a> (Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) when exposed to oxygen. The layer is too thin to be visible, and the metal remains lustrous and smooth. The layer is impervious to <a href=" title="Water"><span style="color:#0B0080; text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">water</span></a> and air, protecting the metal beneath, and this layer quickly reforms when the surface is scratched. This phenomenon is called <a href=" title="Passivation (chemistry)"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration: none;text-underline:none">Passivation</span></a> and is seen in other metals, such as <a href=" title="Aluminium"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline: none">aluminium</span></a> and <a href=" title="Titanium"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">titanium</span></a>. Corrosion resistance can be adversely affected if the component is used in a non-oxygenated environment, a typical example being underwater <a href=" title="Keel"><span style="color:#0B0080; text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">keel</span></a> bolts buried in <a href=" title="Timber"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">timber</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 6pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 9.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi">When stainless steel parts such as <a href=" title="Nut (hardware)"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none; text-underline:none">nuts</span></a> and <a href=" title="Screw"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">bolts</span></a> are forced together, the oxide layer can be scraped off, allowing the parts to <a href=" title="Welding"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">weld</span></a> together. When forcibly disassembled, the welded material may be torn and pitted, an effect known as <a href=" title="Galling"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline: none">galling</span></a>. This destructive galling can be avoided by the use of dissimilar materials for the parts forced together, for example bronze and stainless steel, or even different types of stainless steels (martensitic against austenitic). However, two different alloys electrically connected in a humid environment may act as a <a href=" title="Voltaic pile"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">voltaic pile</span></a> and corrode faster. Nitronic alloys made by selective alloying with manganese and nitrogen may have a reduced tendency to gall. Additionally, threaded joints may be <a href=" title="Lubrication"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">lubricated</span></a> to prevent galling. Low-temperature <a href=" title="Carburizing"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">carburizing</span></a> is another option that virtually eliminates galling and allows the use of similar materials without the risk of corrosion and the need for lubrication.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <div style="mso-element:para-border-div;border:none;border-bottom:solid #AAAAAA 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt:solid #AAAAAA .5pt;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; text-align: justify; border: none; padding: 0in;"><b><span style="font-size:14.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;color:red">Acids<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 6pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 9.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi">Stainless steel is generally highly resistant to attack from <a href=" title="Acids"><span style="color:#0B0080; text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">acids</span></a>, but this quality depends on the kind and concentration of the acid, the surrounding temperature, and the type of steel. Type 904 is resistant to <a href=" title="Sulfuric acid"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">sulfuric acid</span></a> at room temperature, even in high concentrations; type 316 and 317 are resistant below 10%, and <a href=" title="SAE 304 stainless steel"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration: none;text-underline:none">304</span></a> should not be used in the presence of sulfuric acid at any concentration. All types of stainless steel resist attack from <a href=" title="Phosphoric acid"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none; text-underline:none">phosphoric acid</span></a>, 316 and 317 more so than 304; Types 304L and 430 have been successfully used with nitric. <a href=" title="Hydrochloric acid"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">Hydrochloric acid</span></a> will damage any kind of stainless steel, and should be avoided.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <div style="mso-element:para-border-div;border:none;border-bottom:solid #AAAAAA 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt:solid #AAAAAA .5pt;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; text-align: justify; border: none; padding: 0in;"><b><span style="font-size:14.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;color:red">Bases<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; text-align: justify; border: none; padding: 0in;"><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi">The 300 series of stainless steel grades is unaffected by any of the weak bases such as <a href=" title="Ammonium hydroxide"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none; text-underline:none">ammonium hydroxide</span></a>, even in high concentrations and at high temperatures. The same grades of stainless exposed to stronger bases such as <a href=" title="Sodium hydroxide"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none; text-underline:none">sodium hydroxide</span></a> at high concentrations and high temperatures will likely experience some etching and cracking, especially with solutions containing <a href=" title="Chloride"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">chlorides</span></a> such as <a href=" title="Sodium hypochlorite"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none; text-underline:none">sodium hypochlorite</span></a>. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; text-align: justify; border: none; padding: 0in;"><b><span style="font-size:14.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;color:red">Organics<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 6pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 9.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi">Types 316 and 317 are both useful for storing and handling <a href=" title="Acetic acid"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">acetic acid</span></a>, especially in solutions where it is combined with <a href=" title="Formic acid"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">formic acid</span></a> and when aeration is not present (oxygen helps protect stainless steel under such conditions), though 317 provides the greatest level of resistance to corrosion. Type 304 is also commonly used with formic acid though it will tend to discolor the solution. All grades resist damage from <a href=" title="Aldehyde"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">aldehydes</span></a> and <a href=" title="Amine"><span style="color:#0B0080; text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">amines</span></a>, though in the latter case grade 316 is preferable to 304; <a href=" title="Cellulose acetate"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">cellulose acetate</span></a> will damage 304 unless the temperature is kept low. Fats and <a href=" title="Fatty acid"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline: none">fatty acids</span></a> only affect grade 304 at temperatures above 150 °C (302 °F), and grade 316 above 260 °C (500 °F), while 317 is unaffected at all temperatures. Type 316L is required for processing of <a href=" title="Urea"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">urea</span></a>. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <div style="mso-element:para-border-div;border:none;border-bottom:solid #AAAAAA 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt:solid #AAAAAA .5pt;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; text-align: justify; border: none; padding: 0in;"><b><span style="font-size:14.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;color:red">Electricity and magnetism<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:16.8pt;background: #F9F9F9"><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi">Poor selection of materials can cause <a href=" title="Galvanic corrosion"><span style="color:windowtext;text-decoration:none; text-underline:none">galvanic corrosion</span></a> to other metals in contact with stainless steel, Like steel, stainless steel is a relatively poor conductor of electricity, with lower <a href=" title="Resistivity"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline: none">electrical conductivity</span></a> than copper. Other metals in contact with stainless steel in a damp environment may suffer <a href=" title="Galvanic corrosion"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none; text-underline:none">galvanic corrosion</span></a>. even though the stainless metal may be unaffected.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 6pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 9.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi"><a href=" title="Ferrite (iron)"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">Ferritic</span></a> and <a href=" title="Martensitic stainless steel"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration: none;text-underline:none">martensitic</span></a> stainless steels are <a href=" title="Permeability (electromagnetism)"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration: none;text-underline:none">magnetic</span></a>. Annealed <a href=" title="Austenitic stainless steel"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration: none;text-underline:none">austenitic</span></a> stainless steels are <a href=" title="Permeability (electromagnetism)"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration: none;text-underline:none">non-magnetic</span></a>. <a href=" title="Work hardening"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">Work hardening</span></a> can make austenitic stainless steels slightly magnetic.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <div style="mso-element:para-border-div;border:none;border-bottom:solid #AAAAAA 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt:solid #AAAAAA .5pt;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; text-align: justify; border: none; padding: 0in;"><b><span style="font-size:14.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;color:red">3D printing<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 6pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 9.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi">Some <a href=" title="3D printing"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">3D printing</span></a> providers have developed proprietary stainless steel <a href=" title="Sintering"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">sintering</span></a> blends for use in rapid prototyping. One of the more popular stainless steel grades used in <a href=" title="3D printing"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline: none">3D printing</span></a> would be 316L Stainless steel. Due to the high temperature gradient and fast rate of solidification, stainless steel manufactured via <a href=" title="3D printing"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline: none">3D printing</span></a> tends to have more refined microstructures. This in turn results in better mechanical properties. However, stainless steel is not used as much as materials like Ti6Al4V in the <a href=" title="3D printing"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">3D printing</span></a> industry. This is because stainless steel manufactured via the traditional methods tends to be more economically competitive.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <div style="mso-element:para-border-div;border:none;border-bottom:solid #AAAAAA 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt:solid #AAAAAA .5pt;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; text-align: justify; border: none; padding: 0in;"><b><span style="font-size:14.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;color:red">Types of  stainless Steel<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; background: rgb(249, 249, 249);"><span style="font-size:9.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-bidi-font-family:Arial; mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 6pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 9.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi">There are different types of stainless steels: when <a href=" title="Nickel"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">nickel</span></a> is added, for instance, the austenite structure of iron is stabilized. This crystal structure makes such steels virtually non-<a href=" title="Magnetic"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">magnetic</span></a> and less <a href=" title="Brittle"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">brittle</span></a> at low temperatures. For greater <a href=" title="Hardness (materials science)"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration: none;text-underline:none">hardness</span></a> and strength, more <a href=" title="Carbon"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">carbon</span></a>is added. With proper <a href=" title="Heat treatment"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none; text-underline:none">heat treatment</span></a>, these steels are used for such products as <a href=" title="Razor blade steel"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none; text-underline:none">razor blades</span></a>, cutlery, and tools.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 6pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 9.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi">Significant quantities of <a href=" title="Manganese"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">manganese</span></a> have been used in many stainless steel compositions. Manganese preserves an austenitic structure in the steel, similar to nickel, but at a lower <a href=" title="Cost"><span style="color:#0B0080; text-decoration:none;text-underline:none">cost</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <div style="mso-element:para-border-div;border:none;border-bottom:solid #AAAAAA 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt:solid #AAAAAA .5pt;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in 3pt; text-align: justify; border: none; padding: 0in;"><b><span style="font-size:14.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;color:red">Stainless steels are also classified by their <a href=" title="Crystalline structure"><span style="color:red;text-decoration:none; text-underline:none">crystalline structure</span></a>:<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;font-family:Symbol;mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-size: 7pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman';">         </span></span><!--[endif]--><span dir="LTR"></span><i><span style="font-size: 9.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi"><a href=" title="Austenitic stainless steel"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration: none;text-underline:none">Austenitic</span></a></span></i><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-bidi;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi">, or 200 and 300 series, stainless steels have an austenitic crystalline structure, which is a <a href=" title="Face-centered cubic"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none; text-underline:none">face-centered cubic</span></a> crystal structure. Austenite steels make up over 70% of total stainless steel production. They contain a maximum of 0.15% carbon, a minimum of 16% chromium and sufficient nickel and/or manganese to retain an austenitic structure at all temperatures from the <a href=" title="Cryogenic"><span style="color:#0B0080;text-decoration:none;text-underline: none">cryogenic</span></a> region to the melting point of the alloy.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;font-family:Symbol;mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-size: 7pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman';">         </span></span><!--[endif]--><span dir="LTR"></span><span style="font-size: 9.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-hansi&am